1. Essential skills
We design the labs for the Web Security Academy to be as realistic as possible, but you should keep in mind that each lab demonstrates just one possible variation of a given vulnerability. In practice, it's important to be able to recognize subtly different occurrences of the same underlying bugs and know how to adapt the techniques you've learned accordingly.
Obfuscation
URL encoding
Double URL encoding
HTML encoding
XML encoding
Unicode escaping
Hex escaping
Octal escaping
Multiple encodings
SQL CHAR() function
Obfuscating attacks using encodings
Simply copying the attacks from our lab solutions and attempting them on real sites will only get you so far. Websites that you test will have often already been audited by other users and had a number of patches applied to them. To take your skills further, you'll need to adapt the techniques you've learned to overcome these additional obstacles, unearthing vulnerabilities that other testers may have overlooked.
In this section, we'll provide some suggestions on how you can obfuscate harmful payloads to evade input filters and other flawed defenses. Specifically, you'll learn how to use standard encodings to take advantage of misconfigurations and handling discrepancies between connected systems.
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Using Burp Scanner during manual testing
Testing for certain types of vulnerability can be fairly tedious, especially ones that involve trying numerous injection techniques in every controllable input. Doing this manually is often impractical due to real-life time constraints, which can lead to you missing critical vulnerabilities as a result.
In this section, we'll show you a number of ways you can optimize your workflow by using Burp Scanner to supplement your own knowledge and intuition. Not only does this reduce the chance of you overlooking things, it can save you valuable time by helping you to rapidly identify potential attack vectors. This means you can concentrate your time and effort on things that can't be easily automated, such as working out how to exploit the vulnerable behavior or chain it with your other findings.
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Identifying unknown vulnerabilities
When attempting one of our labs, you usually know the exact vulnerability you need to look for. This is obviously not the case when testing genuine websites. To help you bridge this gap, we've created a mystery lab feature that lets you practice identifying vulnerabilities without any prior knowledge of them.
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Obfuscating attacks using encodings
In this section, we'll show you how you can take advantage of the standard decoding performed by websites to evade input filters and inject harmful payloads for a variety of attacks, such as XSS and SQL injection.
Context-specific decoding
Both clients and servers use a variety of different encodings to pass data between systems. When they want to actually use the data, this often means they have to decode it first. The exact sequence of decoding steps that are performed depends on the context in which the data appears. For example, a query parameter is typically URL decoded server-side, while the text content of an HTML element may be HTML decoded client-side.
When constructing an attack, you should think about where exactly your payload is being injected. If you can infer how your input is being decoded based on this context, you can potentially identify alternative ways to represent the same payload.
Decoding discrepancies
Injection attacks often involve injecting payloads that use recognizable patterns, such as HTML tags, JavaScript functions, or SQL statements. As the inputs for these payloads are almost never expected to contain user-supplied code or markup, websites often implement defences that block requests containing these suspicious patterns.
However, these kinds of input filters also need to decode the input in order to check whether it's safe or not. From a security perspective, it's vital that the decoding performed when checking the input is the same as the decoding performed by the back-end server or browser when it eventually uses the data. Any discrepancy can enable an attacker to sneak harmful payloads past the filter by applying different encodings that will automatically be removed later.
Obfuscation via URL encoding
In URLs, a series of reserved characters carry special meaning. For example, an ampersand (&) is used as a delimiter to separate parameters in the query string. The problem is, URL-based inputs may contain these characters for a different reason. Consider a parameter containing a user's search query. What happens if the user searches for something like "Fish & Chips"?
Browsers automatically URL encode any characters that may cause ambiguity for parsers. This usually means substituting them with a % character and their 2-digit hex code as follows:
This ensures that the ampersand will not be mistaken for a delimiter.
Note
Although the space character can be encoded as %20, it is often represented by a plus (+) instead, as in the example above.
Any URL-based input is automatically URL decoded server-side before it is assigned to the relevant variables. This means that, as far as most servers are concerned, sequences like %22, %3C, and %3E in a query parameter are synonymous with ", <, and > characters respectively. In other words, you can inject URL-encoded data via the URL and it will usually still be interpreted correctly by the back-end application.
Occasionally, you may find that WAFs and suchlike fail to properly URL decode your input when checking it. In this case, you may be able to smuggle payloads to the back-end application simply by encoding any characters or words that are blacklisted. For example, in a SQL injection attack, you might encode the keywords, so SELECT becomes %53%45%4C%45%43%54 and so on.
Obfuscation via double URL encoding
For one reason or another, some servers perform two rounds of URL decoding on any URLs they receive. This isn't necessarily an issue in its own right, provided that any security mechanisms also double-decode the input when checking it. Otherwise, this discrepancy enables an attacker to smuggle malicious input to the back-end by simply encoding it twice.
Let's say you're trying to inject a standard XSS PoC, such as <img src=x onerror=alert(1)>, via a query parameter. In this case, the URL might look something like this:
When checking the request, if a WAF performs the standard URL decoding, it will easily identify this well-known payload. The request is blocked from ever reaching the back-end. But what if you double-encode the injection? In practice, this means that the % characters themselves are then replaced with %25:
As the WAF only decodes this once, it may not be able to identify that the request is dangerous. If the back-end server subsequently double-decodes this input, the payload will be successfully injected.
Obfuscation via HTML encoding
In HTML documents, certain characters need to be escaped or encoded to prevent the browser from incorrectly interpreting them as part of the markup. This is achieved by substituting the offending characters with a reference, prefixed with an ampersand and terminated with a semicolon. In many cases, a name can be used for the reference. For example, the sequence : represents a colon character.
Alternatively, the reference may be provided using the character's decimal or hex code point, in this case, : and : respectively.
In specific locations within the HTML, such as the text content of an element or the value of an attribute, browsers will automatically decode these references when they parse the document. When injecting inside such a location, you can occasionally take advantage of this to obfuscate payloads for client-side attacks, hiding them from any server-side defences that are in place.
If you look closely at the XSS payload from our earlier example, notice that the payload is being injected inside an HTML attribute, namely the onerror event handler. If the server-side checks are looking for the alert() payload explicitly, they might not spot this if you HTML encode one or more of the characters:
When the browser renders the page, it will decode and execute the injected payload.
Leading zeros
Interestingly, when using decimal or hex-style HTML encoding, you can optionally include an arbitrary number of leading zeros in the code points. Some WAFs and other input filters fail to adequately account for this.
If your payload still gets blocked after HTML encoding it, you may find that you can evade the filter just by prefixing the code points with a few zeros:
Obfuscation via XML encoding
XML is closely related to HTML and also supports character encoding using the same numeric escape sequences. This enables you to include special characters in the text content of elements without breaking the syntax, which can come in handy when testing for XSS via XML-based input, for example.
Even if you don't need to encode any special characters to avoid syntax errors, you can potentially take advantage of this behavior to obfuscate payloads in the same way as you do with HTML encoding. The difference is that your payload is decoded by the server itself, rather than client-side by a browser. This is useful for bypassing WAFs and other filters, which may block your requests if they detect certain keywords associated with SQL injection attacks
Lab: SQL injection with filter bypass via XML encoding
Obfuscation via unicode escaping
Unicode escape sequences consist of the prefix \u followed by the four-digit hex code for the character. For example, \u003a represents a colon. ES6 also supports a new form of unicode escape using curly braces: \u{3a}.
When parsing strings, most programming languages decode these unicode escapes. This includes the JavaScript engine used by browsers. When injecting into a string context, you can obfuscate client-side payloads using unicode, just like we did with HTML escapes in the example above.
For example, let's say you're trying to exploit DOM XSS where your input is passed to the eval() sink as a string. If your initial attempts are blocked, try escaping one of the characters as follows:
As this will remain encoded server-side, it may go undetected until the browser decodes it again.
Note
Inside a string, you can escape any characters like this. However, outside of a string, escaping some characters will result in a syntax error. This includes opening and closing parentheses, for example.
It's also worth noting that the ES6-style unicode escapes also allow optional leading zeros, so some WAFs may be easily fooled using the same technique we used for HTML encodings. For example:
Obfuscation via hex escaping
Another option when injecting into a string context is to use hex escapes, which represent characters using their hexadecimal code point, prefixed with \x. For example, the lowercase letter a is represented by \x61.
Just like unicode escapes, these will be decoded client-side as long as the input is evaluated as a string:
Note that you can sometimes also obfuscate SQL statements in a similar manner using the prefix 0x. For example, 0x53454c454354 may be decoded to form the SELECT keyword.
Obfuscation via octal escaping
Octal escaping works in pretty much the same way as hex escaping, except that the character references use a base-8 numbering system rather than base-16. These are prefixed with a standalone backslash, meaning that the lowercase letter a is represented by \141.
Obfuscation via multiple encodings
It is important to note that you can combine encodings to hide your payloads behind multiple layers of obfuscation. Look at the javascript: URL in the following example:
Browsers will first HTML decode \, resulting in a backslash. This has the effect of turning the otherwise arbitrary u0061 characters into the unicode escape \u0061:
This is then decoded further to form a functioning XSS payload:
Clearly, to successfully inject a payload in this way, you need a solid understanding of which decoding is performed on your input and in what order.
Obfuscation via the SQL CHAR() function
Although not strictly a form of encoding, in some cases, you may be able to obfuscate your SQL injection attacks using the CHAR()function. This accepts a single decimal or hex code point and returns the matching character. Hex codes must be prefixed with 0x. For example, both CHAR(83) and CHAR(0x53) return the capital letter S.
By concatenating the returned values, you can use this approach to obfuscate blocked keywords. For example, even if SELECT is blacklisted, the following injection initially appears harmless:
However, when this is processed as SQL by the application, it will dynamically construct the SELECT keyword and execute the injected query.
Using Burp Scanner during manual testing
In this section, we'll show you a number of ways you can optimize your manual testing workflow by using Burp Scanner to supplement your own knowledge and intuition. Not only will this help you cover more ground, you'll be able to spend your time where it matters rather than on tedious preliminary work.
Scanning a specific request
When you come across an interesting function or behavior, your first instinct may be to send the relevant requests to Repeater or Intruder and investigate further. But it's often beneficial to hand the request to Burp Scanner as well. It can get to work on the more repetitive aspects of testing while you put your skills to better use elsewhere.
If you right-click on a request and select Do active scan, Burp Scanner will use its default configuration to audit only this request.
This may not catch every last vulnerability, but it could potentially flag things up in seconds that could otherwise have taken hours to find. It may also help you to rule out certain attacks almost immediately. You can still perform more targeted testing using Burp's manual tools, but you'll be able to focus your efforts on specific inputs and a narrower range of potential vulnerabilities.
Even if you already use Burp Scanner to run a general crawl and audit of new targets, switching to this more targeted approach to auditing can massively reduce your overall scan time.
Lab: Discovering vulnerabilities quickly with targeted scanning
Scanning custom insertion points
It's easy to see the benefits of limiting your scans to a single request, but you can take this a step further by only testing specific inputs within that request.
First, send the request to Burp Intruder. On the Positions tab, add payload positions to any insertion points you're interested in, then right-click and select Scan defined insertion points.
You can then configure and launch a scan that will place payloads in these positions only. This lets you focus on the inputs you're interested in rather than scanning a whole bunch of cookies that you know are unlikely to be of any use.
This is especially useful for testing an individual parameter that you want to take a closer look at. Although you can just define a single insertion point using Intruder, it's often quicker to use the Scan manual insertion point extension in this case. You can then highlight any sequence of characters within the request, typically a parameter value, and select Extensions > Scan manual insertion point from the context menu.
This approach can yield results incredibly quickly, giving you something to work with in just a couple of seconds. It also means you can choose to scan inputs that Burp Scanner normally doesn't use, such as custom header values.
Scanning non-standard data structures
As you're free to define insertion points in arbitrary positions, you can also target a specific substring within a value. Among other things, this can be useful for scanning non-standard data structures.
When dealing with common formats, such as JSON, Burp Scanner is able to parse the data and place payloads in the correct positions without breaking the structure. However, consider a parameter that looks something like this:
Using our intuition, we can take a guess that this will be treated as two distinct values by the back-end: an ID of some kind and what appears to be a username, separated by a hyphen. However, Burp Scanner will treat this all as a single value. As a result, it will just place payloads at the end of the parameter, or replace the value entirely.
By manually defining an insertion point on each part of the value separately, you can accurately scan even non-standard data structures like this.
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